FRANCE AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

I. French monarchy emerged from the Hundred Years’ War (1453) stronger

A. Monarchy gained in prestige due to French victory

B. Joan of Arc had made following King Charles VII a matter of state and religion

C. Gabelle (salt tax) and taille (land tax) gave French monarchy permanent revenue source

D. Estates General failed to emerge as popular legislature (as Parliament in England)

1. Met as three separate bodies according to medieval estates: clergy, nobility, commoners

2. Any two estates could combine to make law: Clergy and nobility usually combined

3. Commoners saw greater protection and help through a strong monarchy, especially bourgeoisie who received protection and support for the growth of commerce

4. Commoners saw Estates General as a tool of power by the feudal nobility

5. French kings saw the Estates General as a threat to royal power and it seldom met

E. National army under control of the monarchy emerged under Louis XI (r. 1461-83)

II. French monarchy was strengthened through the rule of Charles VIII, Louis XII and Francis I

A. Royal administration, financial support increased and national army strengthened

B. Supported the growth of humanistic scholarship in France, most notably François Rabelais, Michel de Montaigne and Leonardo da Vinci

C. France began to challenge the Empire and Spain for dominance

1. Charles VIII invaded Italy (1494) upsetting balance of power

2. Francis I (reigned 1547-1559) challenged the power of Charles V on a wide front

a. Charles Habsburg, King of Spain, 1516, and Holy Roman Empire, 1519, threatened France because his territories surrounded France

b. Began French challenge to Habsburg power lasting until 1659 (with no fighting during French religious wars

3. Signing of Treaty of Cateau Cambresis, 1559

a. Ended Habsburg-Valois Wars

b. France admitted to Spanish claims in the Netherlands and Italy

c. Rivalry and war would begin again after Bourbons took throne

4. Battles between Valois and Bourbons of France and Habsburgs of Spain and Austria would continue until 1659

a. Culmination of struggle between France and Habsburgs would be Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

b. France would lead anti-Habsburg coalition

i. France would finance anti-Habsburg, Protestant side

ii. France would enter the Thirty Years’ War in 1635

iii. Fighting between France and Habsburg Spain would continue after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648, until the defeat of Spain in 1659

iv. Defeat of Spain and loss of Spanish power symbolized by Peace of the Pyrenees, 1659, bringing the marriage of King Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa, the infanta of Spain

III. Weak kings and religious wars weakened the monarchy, 1547-1589

A. Henry II (reigned 1547-1559)

1. Weak king following strong Francis I allowed nobility to reassert itself

2. Persecuted Protestants and brought rebellion and division

3. Many in nobility became Protestants (Huguenots) to separate themselves from the king

a. Almost 50% of nobility became Huguenots

b. Only about 10% of population at large were Protestants

B. Early death of Henry II brought his 3 sons to power before they were mature

C. Monarchy dominated by Catherine de Médicis (1519-1589), wife of Henry II (married, 1533) and mother of Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III

1. Catherine was unpopular, Italian-born, devout Catholic

2. Served as regent for each of her sons who became king before adulthood

D. Three sons of Henry II (Francis II (r. 1559-60), Charles IX (r. 1560-74) and Henry III (r. 1574-89)) were dominated by their mother, Catherine de Medici, unpopular Italian

1. Francis II (r. 1559-1560), came to throne at age 15, mentally ill, died after very short reign of injuries

2. Charles IX (r. 1560-1574), came to throne at age of 10, dominated by mother and approved the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

3. Henry III (r. 1574-1589), came to throne at age 13, assassinated at end of War of the Three Henrys

E. Religious warfare between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) devastated France, 1562-89

1. Many French nobles became Huguenots, French Calvinists, to gain independence from the monarchy

2. Open warfare 1562-70 ended indecisively with a truce

3. St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre, 1572, broke truce and open warfare began again

a. Marriage of Margaret, daughter of Catherine de Medici, to Henry, Protestant King of Navarre gathered Huguenots together in celebration

b. Henry, Duke of Guise, leader of extreme Catholic faction with increasing personal influence over Charles IX, led massacre plot

c. Admiral Coligny, leader of Huguenots, was assassinated along with other leaders

d. Over 10,000 Huguenots killed in massacre in Paris and elsewhere in France

e. Most violent period of warfare resulted

4. War of the Three Henrys (1572-89) resulted

a. Three factions emerged

i. Henry III hoped to bring a compromise

ii. Duke Henry of Guise, wanted to eliminate the Huguenots and take the throne

iii. Henry, King of Navarre, Protestant, became the leader of the Huguenots and his marriage to Margaret Valois, daughter of Catherine de Médicis and sister of King Charles IX, gave him a claim to the throne

b. King Henry III, Henry de Guise, Henry of Navarre

c. Violent warfare destroyed much of French countryside, divided the nobility, weakened the power of the monarchy, and weakened French international power

d. Henry, Duke of Guise, leader of Catholic extremists was assassinated by followers of Henry III, 1588

e. King Henry III was assassinated by followers of Henry of Guise the same year as Catherine de Médicis died, 1589

f. Fighting ended leaving only the Protestant Henry of Navarre as claimant to the throne as Henry IV

IV. Reign of Henry IV (1589‑1610)

A. Henry IV is regarded as one of France’s most able and popular monarchs

B. France rapidly recovered from devastation of the religious wars

C. Henry came to the throne after years of religious civil war, 1562-1589

D. Henry converted to Catholicism, 1593, to bring peace to France

E. Many members of the nobility followed him and converted to Catholicism

F. Edict of Nantes issued, 1598, effectively granting religious toleration to Protestants in France

1. Huguenots were granted the right to practice their Protestant religion

2. Huguenots received the right to fortify their towns for protection from Catholics

C. Domestic policies of Henry IV improved France after decades of religious warfare

1. Chose Duke de Sully as his chief minister

a. Very able administrator (and a Huguenot)

b. Unpopular with the nobility because of his effort to curb their power and because he was a Huguenot

2. Henry IV and Sully used mercantilism to strengthen French economy and nation

a. Government took the responsibility for improving France and the French economy

b. Policies stimulated French commerce, agriculture, and industry

c. Roads, canals built and swamps drained using royal money

d. New farming methods introduced; new industries established

3. Finances were greatly improved under Sully: The treasury showed a surplus by Henry's death in 1610

4. Law and order was re‑established under royal authority

5. Nobility and its power in the provinces was repressed

D. Henry's childless marriage to Margaret (daughter of Henry II and Catherine de Medici) was annulled in 1599; married Marie de Medici, 1600

E. Henry IV was assassinated, 1610, by Francois Ravaillac, Catholic fanatic

V. Marie de Medici became regent upon Henry IV’s death (Louis XIII was 9 years old)

A. Narrow‑minded Marie undid much of the good done by Henry IV

B. Marie appointed Concino Concini as first minister replacing Sully

1. Concini was resented by the French as a suspicious Italian

2. Finances of the treasury were squandered on the nobility to keep it in its place

3. Marie arranged an unpopular marriage between her son Louis XIII and Anne of Austria by treaty with Spain

C. Estates‑General had to be summoned to repair the financial mess, 1614

1. Estates‑General deadlocked, showing this group’s inability to solve problems

a. Third Estate (especially the emerging upper middle class, the bourgeoisie) wanted reduction of tax burden

b. First and Second Estates wanted privileges protected and the Huguenots suppressed

2. Estates-General will not meet again until 1789

D. Marie takes notice of member of First Estate (clergy), Jean Armand du Plessis de Richelieu, Bishop of Luçon

1. Richelieu remained at court to become a royal advisor

2. Richelieu became a Cardinal and a member of the royal council, 1622

3. Cardinal Richelieu was named First Minister, 1624

4. Louis XIII recognized the statecraft of Cardinal Richelieu

5. As First minister, Richelieu was the actual ruler of France, 1624‑1642

6. Reign of Louis XIII is actually the rule of Richelieu

VI. Richelieu's "raison d'etat": to make the monarch supreme in France and to make France the supreme power in Europe

A. Fortified cities of the Huguenots were a threat to the monarch's absolute power

1. Huguenots were ordered to dismantle their fortifications

2. La Rochelle, the leading Huguenot city, was besieged and others cities were attacked

3. Peace of Alais, 1629, brought very generous terms

a. Huguenots had to dismantle all fortifications

b. All religious rights under the Edict of Nantes were guaranteed: the religious toleration remained

4. Most Huguenots became loyal supporters of Louis XIII due to the generous terms of Richelieu

5. Huguenots were allowed to serve in government jobs and the military

B. Cardinal Richelieu worked to curb the power of nobility

1. Richelieu ordered the destruction of all fortifications not necessary to the defense of France

2. Castles of the nobles not dismantled were destroyed by French army

3. Nobility's hatred of Richelieu grew; he survived several assassination attempts

C. Richelieu improved government efficiency with his "intendant" system

1. France was divided into 30 districts, each controlled by an intendant (local administrator)

2. The Intendant reported directly to Richelieu

3. The intendant replaced the power of the nobility in these local areas and served to lessen provincialism

D. Richelieu's economic policies had moderate success

1. Mercantilism was practiced: Richelieu negotiated trade agreements with Denmark, Russia, and Sweden

2. High taxes resulted from the cost of the consolidation of monarchical power (opposing Huguenots and nobility), and the Thirty Years' War

E. Richelieu promoted spectacle and splendor to glorify the monarchy as the symbol of all France

1. Established the French Academy to unify and promote the French language

2. Richelieu encouraged Louis' attendance to ceremony and other public appearances

3. Tried to promote the growth of economy to credit the king for improvements in the lives of the peasants and commoners

F. French (Richelieu's) foreign policy: to break power of the Habsburgs (of Austria and Spain) over Europe

1. Habsburg lands surround France

2. Richelieu maneuvered to weaken the Habsburgs through war, directly and indirectly

3. Richelieu financed other nations to war against the Habsburgs

a. Protestant side that opposed the Habsburgs in Thirty Years' War: Protestant German princes, the Dutch in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden

b. Encouraged and financed the Ottoman Turks that threatened the Austrian Habsburgs from the Balkans

4. France entered the Thirty Years' War in 1635 only when the Habsburgs appeared to be winning and the Danes and Swedes could no longer carry on the war without help

5. France entered the war on the Protestant side demonstrating Richelieu's placing of national interests above religious interests

6. Richelieu died in 1642 naming Cardinal Mazarin his hand-picked and personally-trained successor

7. Cardinal Mazarin would negotiate the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain leaving France as Europe's supreme power

8. Louis XIV would inherit the absolute monarchy constructed by Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin

Elizabeth (Tudor) I of England and Henry (Bourbon) IV of France are among the earliest examples of a new class of monarchs, the so‑called "political monarchs", practitioners of Machiavelli's realistic politics and Jean Bodin's philosophy of the "politiques". They recognized the changing realities of modern political systems and adapted their beliefs. To the politiques, power was more important than rigid uniformity within the nation. They were willing to recognize the emerging diversity in the population of the nation-state and that the spirit of nationalism could overcome these differences. Key to this acceptance of diversity was the issue of religion. The politiques demonstrated by their behavior that they were willing to tolerate minority religious beliefs if those dissenters were loyal to them and the nation.

The English were developing a constitutional system which put parliamentary limits on monarchical powers. With its recognition of rights other than those of the ruler, this system would eventually recognize individual rights. The quarrel between monarch and parliament divided England during the seventeenth century. However, after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England emerged as an example of the constitutional system for all to follow. Democracy would develop slowly but steadily with this recognition of both individual rights and limitations on government.

The absolute monarchy of France was under construction with the major contribution to come from Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII's first minister, who was one of the first to practice politics as an activity separate from personal morality. The absolutist system viewed the monarch, as the representative of God on earth, holding complete power over all individuals. The French system with its centralized, absolute monarch would reach its pinnacle under Louis XIV (reigned, 1643-1715). This system would be very successful in the seventeenth century but backlash by individuals would help to cause the French Revolution in 1789.

England and France provided the best examples of these two differing types of government in the 17^th century and modern times would feature the constant conflict between these two opposing views.